Perspectives From West Africa Movie Review Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Perspectives From West Africa - Movie Review Example The people interviewed to comment on various topics that range from the menace of apes destroying crops to butchers discussing their business. According to Aguibou Yansane, â€Å"The film depicts a lot of truths often avoided by more high profile documentaries and news reports in and on Africa.   It shows Africans as humane and striving to do well like all other human beings†. This documentary is divided into four parts. Each part explores a different country and dwells on different issues. In the first part Senegalese give their opinions on September 11, the United States foreign policy, Osama Bin Laden, former President Bill Clinton and George Bush. These opinions represent a wide spectrum and are valuable as Dakar, where the scenes are shot one year after September 11, is the vibrant capital of a pro-western, democratic country with ninety percent of its population being Muslims. The second part is about The Gambia. The Gambia is ranked almost at the bottom of the world’s economic indexes. However, people visiting Serekunda are surprised when they see the vigorous activity in the sprawling shops and marketplace. This is because even to earn a few dollars (local currency of Gambia) one has to be in the marketplace. In this part of the film, various small-scale entrepreneurs of The Gambia tell in their own words, how they "make their dalasi" in mar ketplaces. Part three is about the successes and challenges of community-based conservation projects that are aimed at providing protection to the natural environment as well as the economic development of the local communities in the forest regions of southern Guinea-Bissau. It includes viewpoints of a variety of local people like the vice-president of a local women’s association, the director of a community radio station, a government forestry worker, a local chief, a hunter, etc. The film also has rare footage of Africa’s chimpanzee.

Culture and Language in Society Essay Example for Free

Culture and Language in Society Essay In a world that is rapidly moving toward a predominantly technological and uniformed system, language and culture are becoming increasingly crucial to defining an individual. For many people, culture still completely dictates their way of life, as is evident in many religions, such as Hinduism, where the line between religious traditions and everyday life is blurred. Just as Henry Trueba can be quoted in Afforming Diversity, Whatever knowledge we acquire, it is always acquired through language and culture, two interlocked symbolic systems considered essential for human interaction and survival. Culture and language are so intricately intertwined that even trained scholars find it impossible to decide where language ends and begins, or which one of the two impacts the other the most (189). Without language, culture would be, as Trueba stated, virtually non-existent, as certain emotions can only be conveyed in certain languages. The same holds true for language, as it is often impossible to translate texts while retaining the same literary and emotional connotations the original version contained because certain words only exist in those languages. Moreover, language, especially in literature, leaves much up to interpretation, and translations often omit any ambiguity that the author may have originally intended. When searching for English versions of Fyodor Dostoyevskys Crime and Punishment, several versions are available, each translated by different individuals. In each of these books, differences can be observed in the way the plot is described, though they seldom make any difference in the larger scheme. Even the spelling differs (e. g. Dunya and Dounia) simply because of the way the translator thought the word sounded phonetically. By the same token, reading a Tang dynasty poem in Chinese differs greatly from the English translation. Though the English version manages to retain most of the poets original message, it lacks the fluidity and the poetic essence that can be found in the same poem in Chinese. As with all subjective issues, language is subject to interpretation, and to take away a literary works original language is to deduct from the piece as a whole. Knowledge, however, is not, as Trueba described, acquired solely through culture and language. It is not necessary for language to exist in order for us to know that fire is hot, or that water is wet. Though we may not be able to place these feelings with these specific words, we know that they exist because our sense of touch tells us so. If I chose to call fire water, the flames would still burn my hand when I touched it even if I had attributed a word that would normally extinguish the flames to it. By doing so, I have not changed the entity I have renamed, but have simply categorized it under a different label. A baby does not need to know the meaning of the word hot in order to know that a burning stove is extremely warm to the touch, or the meaning of the word light in order to know that it is brighter in the day than it is at not. After all, a rose by any other name would be just as sweet (Shakespeare, Romeo and Juliet). Ever since ancient days, culture and language have played integral roles in defining an individual and dictating ones everyday life. The morals that we live by are directly related to our cultural values, which are evident in ancient texts, such as the Koran, Bible and Torah. These books, however, have been translated so many times that their meaning has no doubt been at least slightly changed. In the Jewish culture, the Torah must be recited in Hebrew, the original language of the Jews. In this instance, Hebrew is much more than just a language; it also symbolizes the religious beliefs and customs of the Jewish people, and in this way, much of their traditional culture can be retained. Likewise, Catholics conduct Mass in Latin (though it is not as common anymore) and like in Judaism, much of the culture is maintained that way as well. Language leads directly to culture and culture to language in a cyclical process so that the boundaries between the two become virtually nonexistent. By the same token, language (be it English, Russian, Greek or Japanese) would differ greatly from what we know today if culture were to cease to exist. Much of culture as we know it would be lost without language, as it would be next to impossible to carry on cultural traditions from generation to generation without a means of communication. Much of the vocabulary accumulated in languages is a direct result of cultural practices, traditions and innovations. Each time a new revolution in society or technology takes place, a string of new words is developed. It is estimated that a few dozen new words are added to the English language alone each year. 1 Common words such as television, Internet, and telephone would have meant nothing two short centuries ago. The word silhouette only came into existence after the French Minister of Finance under Louis XV, Etienne de Silhouette, began decorating his office with cheap, black paper cutouts. Back then, the word was associated with stinginess, as the people felt oppressed by the strict financial measures he set on the French in order to replenish the treasury, which had suffered as a result of wars with Britain and Prussia. 2 Today, however, the word is often used to described stylish, chic products, and can be found on cars like the Oldsmobile Silhouette, and shoes, such as Silhouette, a Dutch shoe store. As culture develops, language, too, must evolve to accommodate the new changes as people feel the need to identify objects and feelings with words. A persons way of utilizing language can also tell a lot about his/her cultural background. For someone raised in a normal urban environment, the word Negro will have a very meaning as opposed to the individual who had grown up in the Ku Klux Klan. For the urban New Yorker, Negro would be a derogatory and offensive term that should never be used. For the Klan member, however, the term would equate to ignorant and degraded and altogether sold to the devil. Likewise, the word woman could be considered a derogatory insult depending on the context it is used in. For many women in this modern era, if a man were to say Hey woman, get over here and help me with this, it would warrant the man getting a slap across the face, because it not only is insulting, but also reminds women of the days when they were considered inferior to men. This attitude exists particularly in Western culture where women are considered equal to men (even still, discrepancies exist, particularly in positions of power and politics). In many Islamic countries, however, this kind of deprecating behavior towards women is acceptable to the point that a woman basically becomes her husbands property. Calling someone hey woman would certainly not be regarded as derogatory or insulting by the majority of the people in these countries (e. g. Afghanistan, Iran, Iraq, Pakistan). For the women there, such behavior is acceptable because it is tolerated within their culture. The word itself is simply another label that describes who they are. In a culture that believes that women are inferior to men, sexism towards women in language would be common. Three centuries ago, the same attitude would hold true in Western civilizations as few women could hope to rise above the system and hold a position other than that of a housewife. It had been a belief that too much learning for women would result in evil. Thus, women often obtained an education only to the third grade level. Since society had deemed this acceptable and even necessary back then, calling someone woman would not be as offensive as it would be today. Though the word has remained unchanged, the connotation it carries differs greatly as a result in cultural changes. The number of languages one knows also reflects on the level of cultural awareness one has. The more languages one knows, the more likely it is he/she will have a deeper sense of the various cultures that exist in the world. Being bilingual in Chinese and English, I am able to understand Chinese culture better than someone who does not know the language because my view of the Chinese culture and traditions is subject only to my own interpretation, rather than that of a tour guide, publisher, author or another individual. As stated previously, it is impossible to translate everything word for word and thus certain phrases can only be communicated effectively in the original language, yet such expressions are often imperative to further understand a culture. For example, the words Long live the people of the world appear on the Tiananmen gate in Beijing. To translate it literally, however, the same phrase would be May the people of the world live for 10,000 years. Though the general meaning is the same, slight differences still exist. Language and culture are inextricably linked in defining an individual, society and nation. Without one, the other would cease to exist as we know it. Simply by listening to the language, or even a dialect, a person speaks, one can often tell a lot about their cultural background. Generally speaking, the Californian accent shows that the person is most likely laid back and easy going, while the Southern drawl may depict a persons tendency to take things slowly. As it would be unlikely to find a member of the social elite speaking Ebonics (Black English), it would be safe to assume that the individual who speaks the dialect is from an urban environment, and is culturally aware of the urban scene. Just as Trueba had states, there is no division at which language ends and culture begins, as they continue in a cycle with one completing the other. In order to understand ourselves better, we must first understand our heritage, which is composed largely of language and culture. To find a definite distinction between the two would be impossible and would call for a change to language and culture as we presently know it.  https://www.hugedomains.com/domain_profile.cfm?d=tlsmarketinge=com

The Human Genome Project Essay -- Genetics Science Technology Papers

The Human Genome Project Almost every aspect that makes a person unique is due to genetic factors, from the color of an individual's eyes to the functions of white blood cells. The one thing that makes an individual's unique characteristics the hardest to understand is the fact that it is all composed of four bases in different patterns. These patterns of adenine, thiamine, guanine and cytosine are the only things that differ one human from the next. This genetic code is contained in every cell that is found in the human body. Gregor Mendel first discovered the foundations of inheritance in the nineteenth century. His discovery was the basis that has now made it possible for humans to learn more about the genetic code. Mendel's discovery has now turned in to a multi-billion dollar project. This project is known as the Human Genome Project (HGP). Brief History The HGP began as a joint effort between the Department of Energy (DOE) and the United States National Institutes of Health (NIH). The Department of Energy's initial reason for entering the project was to was to gain a better understanding of the potential health risks that were involved in energy use and the production of energy, especially the risks involved with radiation. Two years after the DOE proposed the idea of sequencing the entire human genome the NIH joined in the effort. The foundations of the project were laid and two years later, in 1990, the project was begun. The project was originally laid out to be a fifteen-year program that would have a budget estimated at three billion dollars (1). The DOE and the NIH established five major goals for the HGP. The first goal is to identify all of the genes in human DNA. This goal is phenomenal when it is co... ...GR Announce Formation of New Genomics Company." Obtained from the WWW: http://www.tigr.org/new/press_release_may98.html 6) Website #6: Human Genome Project Information. "Facts About Genome Sequencing." Obtained from the WWW: http://www.ornl.gov/hgmis/faq/seqfacts.html 7) Website #7: "Tools of the Trade." Obtained from the WWW: http://www.ornl.gov/hgmis/publicat/tko/05_tools.html 8) Website #8: "Exploring the Genomic Landscape." Obtained from the WWW: http://www.ornl.gov/hgmis/publicat/tko/04_exploring.html 9) Website #9: DOE Human Genome Program Report. "Capillary Array Electrophoresis." Obtained from the WWW: http://www.ornl.gov/TechResources/Human_Genome/publicat/97pr/04g_sequ.html 10) Karanjawala, Zarir E. "Genetics in the Context of Medical Practice." The Journal of the American Medical Association. Nov. 4 1998, v280n17, p1533. Student Essay List

Essay --

Effects Of Smoking In Women Until fairly recent times, smoking was considered to be exclusive to men. They were seen smoking at parties, in public places, in offices and even in their homes while their female counterparts watched them indulge themselves. However this is not the case anymore for the last few decades have seen a rapid increase in the rate of female smokers. Figures show that in the year 2000 there were about 25 % and 21 % male and female smokers respectively. Needless to say this has resulted in some serious health problems for women as studies show that over 165,000 women die of diseases that are an outcome of heavy smoking, which includes heart attacks emphysema and breast and ovarian cancers. The fact of the matter is that just as smoking results in dire consequences for men, it produces equally horrific results for women. Most women are however unaware of the fact that smoking can pose health problems such as various different cancers. Not only this but also it can produce bad breath and yellow teeth and nails, which is not a health problem but does add to the overall negative effects of smoking. The following section of the essay will thus take into account the adverse health effects that smoking has on women i.e. breast and ovarian cancer. Studies have shown that smoking advertisements have begun to focus on teenage girls in a bid to increase their sales, while reinforcing the trend in adult female smokers. Experts point out that doing so will result in getting the teenagers hooked on to the habit with the result that they will turn into life-long smokers. It is a commonly known fact that the earlier one begins to smoke; the harder it becomes to quit later on. Thus teenage girls find themselves attracted to t... ...skin to age i.e. the appearance of fine lines and wrinkles are common and the skin begins to sag and loses its elasticity. Thus all those botox injections and plastic surgeries are likely to wield no results if a woman does not quit the habit. As mentioned earlier it also causes the nails and the teeth to become yellow and the smoker develops a particularly bad breath, which can be embarrassing if one is in public. Thus the above discussion shows that smoking in women causes a number of health problems such as heart diseases, cancers, osteoporosis and reproductive problems thereby minimizing her chances of conception. References Greaves, Lorraine. Smoke Screen: Women's Smoking and Social Control. New York: Scarlet Press, 1996. Author unavailable.  Ã¢â‚¬Å"Smoking.† Available online at: http://www.ivillagehealth.com/library/nwh/content/0,4482,215912_227354,00.html 2000.

America: the Melting Pot? Essay

The Melting Pot? For as far back as history books go there have been stories about people moving from one place to another. Immigration is defined as the movement of people from one country to another for the sole purpose of a stable residence. The United States of America has always been known as the melting pot of the world. Now our country is being faced with people trying to come here illegally and it is creating an argument between legal citizens. Do we allow these people to come here and make their reams real like our ancestors did, or do we take every measure we can to keep them out? While doing research I found that there are many people who are very against illegal immigration. They believe that the people who wish to become citizens need to go through a very vigorous process to gain citizenship. After the attacks on our country, and the ongoing war, many citizens are on their guard. It is very hard to feel safe in such an imperfect world. Many people are scared of what will come and even more terrified that if it happened once that it will happen again. Since many people re so afraid, they want homeland security to be increased along the countries boarders, better background checks on workers, and harsher punishments for the employers who hire the illegal aliens when they know that the workers do not have the proper paper work and are not legal citizens. On the other side of the argument, some Americans feel that it is wrong to punish these people who are Just trying to improve their lives, and the lives of their families. They believe that America was based on a dream, the same dream that our ancestors had when they came here looking for a better future, Just as the people that are llegally trying to get into the country want to do. This does not mean that these people support how the immigrants are trying to get around the system, Just that they should be given a better chance at gaining their citizenship. They want the government to help the immigrants who cannot afford to go about gaining their citizenship legally. This then opens up another argument of who will end up paying for their citizenship, and why should natural born citizens have to pay for others to come into our country, take what few Job opportunities there are left and in the long run, over-populate the country. When choosing a new country to live in, people travel to many places to find the perfect fit. Many countries are not as open and accepting to immigrants as the US is, so that is where they decide to make a new home. While many immigrants look upon the U. S. to make their dreams come true, there are many people who try to come here illegally. These illegal immigrants are often called â€Å"aliens†; they also share the same hopes and dreams of coming to America for a new life, but cross the border without the proper permission. Many reasons they have difficulty crossing the or cannot afford it. They are determined to get here to create a better life for themselves, which then creates a problem for America. The Department of Homeland Security estimated in December 2003 and that 8 million to 12 million illegal aliens resided in the U. S. and 700,000 new illegal aliens enter and stay each year. Many Americans fear that since there is such a great amount of people coming into our country that they will take Jobs and cost our citizens more money. Apologist try to make it seem like illegal immigration is a victimless crime, however others find that that this is a serious problem that causes substantial harm to American citizens. Public funds are being greatly drained because of illegal immigration. The quality of education, health care and other services for Americans are undermined by the needs of endless numbers of poor, unskilled illegal entrants. Another great fear of many citizens is that the presence furnishes of an opportunity for terrorism. With these immigrants sneaking in, being unnoticed it makes it difficult for our government to know whom posses a threat to our society. Most illegal immigrants only come here to improve their lifestyle and to get work. However, it is feared that if terrorists see how easy it is to come in to America nnoticed, that they will do the same and that only means bad things for the safety of our countrys citizens. Some people think that the government should give all illegal immigrants legal status to bring them out of the shadows. Others then fear if we show openness and such accommodation to people who have illegally crossed our boarder that it will send the wrong message to the rest of the world that we condone illegal immigration. This then creates an even bigger problem that America will be forced to face forever. Some citizens feel that it is hard for them to create an opinion on this issue when it has not directly affected them. I am one of those. I have never had any difficulty getting housing, or a Job because of illegal immigrants. The area that I am from does not have any issues with employers hiring people with forged papers, or any of the sorts. However, after doing all of the research I find myself torn between both sides of the argument. I do not believe that people from other countries should be allowed to cross our border, without our government’s knowledge. It is for the safety of the American people that officials know who is in our country and who may pose a threat. Also, it seems as though handing out free passes to those who have already come ere illegally is a way to try and make the situation go away, and that is never a good solution. One cannot blame people for trying to escape a bad life. America prides itself on the freedom it gives its’ people. Our fore fathers created this country on a belief that if a person does not agree with the government of his or her country that they should be able to leave that country to live in a place where they can believe what they want to believe, and become anything they want to become. A lot of early immigrants came to this country with hardly any money to spare they came on a hope and a wish hat coming here would create a better life for them, their children, and their children’s children.

The Definition of Atomic Mass or Weight in Chemistry

The Definition of Atomic Mass or Weight in Chemistry Atomic Mass or Weight Definition Atomic mass, which is also known as atomic weight, is the average mass of atoms of an element, calculated using the relative abundance of isotopes in a naturally-occurring element. Atomic mass indicates the size of an atom. Although technically the mass is the sum of the mass of all the protons, neutrons, and electrons in an atom, the mass of an electron is so much less than that of the other particles, that mass is simply that of the nucleus (protons and neutrons). Examples of Atomic Mass The atomic mass of carbon is 12.011. Most carbon atoms consist of six protons and six neutrons.The atomic mass of hydrogen is 1.0079. Hydrogen (atomic number 1) is the element that has the lowest atomic mass. The most common isotope of hydrogen is protium, an atom that consists of a proton or a proton and an electron. Because of a small amount of deuterium (one proton and one neutron) and tritium (one proton and two neutrons), the atomic mass of hydrogen is slightly higher than 1. How To Calculate Atomic Mass

Education during Imprisonment Essays - Penology, Criminology

Education during Imprisonment Essays - Penology, Criminology Education during Imprisonment Mr. Chojnacki English 110 12/9/14 Education during Imprisonment Education and job skills are key elements to reducing recidivism therefore; prisons, county jails, and the probation offices should adopt mandatory programs so ex-offenders can become productive members of society. Every year approximately 9 million people are released from prison in the U.S. (Center, T. N.-e., 2012) and due to lack of education and job skills, 52% of those 9 million returns within three years. According to Yamatani & Spjeldnes (2011), The United States represents only 5 percent of the worlds population, but we hold 25 percent of the world's inmates in our prisons and jails (Pew Center on the States, 2008). We have more people behind bars in total numbers and per capita than any other industrialized country2.3 million out of nearly 300 million (750 per 100,000 residents)one out of 100 U.S. This essay will show the difference between recidivism and rehabilitation as well as showing how education and job training can effectively reduce the rate of recidivism in the U.S . What is recidivism you ask? The Merriam-Webster defines recidivism as a tendency to relapse into a previous condition or mode of behavior (Merriam-Webster Dictionary, 2012). Recidivism comes into play because people who have limited education and no job skills tend to find other means of support which are not always legal. According to OBrien, (2005), Women who left prisons that offered educational and job training programs were less likely to recidivate. The study also showed that these women suffered from lack of education and job skills before their arrest. When one knows no other means than the one that got them arrested in the first place, this causes them to leave prison and revert back to their former selves. This is what the dictionary says that rehabilitation is. Rehabilitation is, defined as, restoring someone or something to a former state or capacity. Now why would we want to restore someone to their former uneducated, unskilled self? That is defeating the purpose of the incarceration. This takes us to whether or not incarcerating a person rehabilitates them or not. According to Diane Brown, when entering prison you are automatically put to work either in the kitchen or as a porter (janitor). The only way you are mandated to school is if you're reading scores are a 6.0 or below, and you are never taught any job skills. Its either you know it or you dont. Ms. Brown states in the interview with the author that she has been incarcerated 5 times and is currently on parole. She also states that she has never been legally employed because she does not know how to fill out an application so she has to do other things to make money to support her and her son (personal communication, October 01, 2012). People like Diane are in need of our help. There is a saying quoted by Maya Angelou (Author of I Know Why the Caged Bird sings) and it goes, When you know better, you do better, this applies directly to most of these offenders. The crimes that they commit are not always in ma lice, but just another means of survival. These are the people that would benefit from the educational and job readiness programs spoken of here. Education and job readiness can greatly decrease the rate of recidivism. Those recently released from prison are at a higher risk of being rearrested if they do not have the tools they need to move ahead (Visher, 2010). We want them to progress forward. The only way to do this is to mandate education and job training, not only during their incarceration, but after their release as well. Taxpayers feel as though this may be a waste of money but it is believed by others that this will be the most effective strategy to use to reduce recidivism. With the way that the system is working now it is only a form of punishment for the offender and not helping to make them productive members of society once their incarceration is over. It cost taxpayers approximately $64 billion yearly to run the State prisons which is just a little over $31,000 per i nmate (CBS Sunday Morning, 2012). This money could

Black Boys Journey essays

Black Boy's Journey essays The novel Black Boy, written by Richard Wright takes you back in the deep south of Jackson, Mississippi where whites attempted to tame into submission blacks by hard discipline. It seemed that the more Richard had gained in life, the more he was hurt. Richard was alienated from his environment, even though he tried to distance himself from the prejudice all around him, the white people still tried to turn him into the stereotypical southern black person. Richard was always a rebel, from his boyhood to his older teenage years. From the beginning he would not subdue below the white man himself like the other black people around him did. The white people around him knew that he was different from other black men. The people were scared because he challenged the system that they had created for themselves as the super power. They feared Richard, and some of the white people felt it necessary to act out their racist feelings to order to cover up their fear. Their were many events in Richard Wrights life which may have shaped his philosophy of his life. In the novel, the principal at Richards school had asked Richard to give a speech to a large audience of white and black students, Richard refused to read the principals prepared speech. By reading the principals speech, Richard was saying what the white power wanted him to say and to Richard this would be giving in to the thing he hated so much. Richard was willing to leave school without a diploma instead of this. White people alienated Richard from his environment because he did not accept the way of life that other black people did. This even that occurred in his life, shaped his philosophy on life, extremely, this told people that he would have his mind set on one thing and concentrate on that, to achieve his goal, in other words he had a hard head and no one could persuade or change his mind on...

Report relating to the recent financial crisis Essay

Report relating to the recent financial crisis - Essay Example A major strength in the author’s exposition is the manner in which he offers deductive analyses of situations, which makes it possible for the reader to connect the links between institutional practices and the resultant adverse effects on the American economy. In a significant sense, the author illustrates the manner in which the banking industry in America has used its immense financial resources to bankroll policies through calculated manipulation of Congress. The act of manipulation occurs through highly paid Ivy League economists and financial analysts who are paid large sums of money to give convincing but untruthful information about the matters of financial management and economic policies. As a result, it becomes appropriate to consider the fact that most of the issues raised by the author take a wide angle that connects the practices and policies of various institutions within a network that affirms the primacy of short-term financial gains over long-term policies by the corporate actors (Ferguson 44). The author makes the point that the various economic challenges facing America are derivative of the policies and practices adopted by Wall Street over the past decades. Fergusson enriches his arguments by roping in the changes in the legal framework, which have enabled private players in the economy to advance their private interests at the expense of economic growth. For instance, he cites the removal of the 1933 Glass-Steagall Act, had established and maintained some element of distinction between investment banks and commercial banks (Ferguson 51). The consequence of such actions were seen in a wide range of unethical and unprofessional business practices that included credit default swaps and other measures that had the long term effect of ruining many sectors of America’s economy. The book points out some of the major loopholes that have enabled the unethical practices to persist in the American economic environment are largely deter mined by various economic indicators that connect with the multiple issues on which the economic processes are based. In this regard, the book opens up a deep analysis of the unstable nature of the American economic systems in terms of their impact on the dependent economies. Bad corporate governance practices that thrive within the American economic system are explained in terms of non-existent of laws that would be relied upon to reign in the corporate culprits. On this particular matter, the author makes the case for the review of the current policies in the American economic sector for the purposes of instilling value and good corporate practices. Such practices, as the author argues, would shield the American economy from adverse effects such as those that were witnessed during the 2008 economic crisis. The crisis, according to Ferguson, was a culmination of years of corruption and institutionalized greed that have destabilized the American economic system and threatened the co untry’s economic power image in the world. The book offers projections about the possibilities of recurrent crises in the event that the United States does not review its policies by developing financial and economic safeguards to check against runaway corporate greed. An important aspect

Summary and Personal Response Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words - 3

Summary and Personal Response - Assignment Example The campaign slogan has not however passed the critics. Some term it as a nonsensical message that has got nothing to do with the safety of the people. For example, Harvey Molotch, NYU Sociologist, has different views about the campaign slogan, â€Å"See Something, Say Something†. According to Harvey, over 2000 residents of New York had actually â€Å"seen something and said something† but nothing tangible had come out of it. He recalls that in 2006 and 2007, over eighteen terrorism related cases were â€Å"seen† and reported. However, it turned out that the reported incidents had nothing to do with terrorism. They were just normal criminal activities such as violations of immigration rules, possession of unregistered guns, and selling of fake commodities. Harvey goes further to state that â€Å"it is not easy to stop terrorism related activities just by using campaign slogans†. Nonetheless, it is unfair to say that reporting does not help at all. A street vendor who alerted the police was able to save Times Square bombing in 2010. The fact that many people in New York are busy doing their own activities is also an impediment in doing what the program advocates. The fact that there are people working on projects that involves wires and gadgets, and the Muslims carrying some machines into their worship places is also another challenge to the â€Å"See Something, Say Something† program. Reporting such harmless incidents will not only charm the law-enforcement system, but also create unnecessary tension. At times, â€Å"see something, say something† can be a nuisance slogan, especially when people report incidents that they are not sure of without involving investigators. The continual reporting of such incidences will also give police officers or investigators hard time to figure out what exactly is needed. â€Å"See something, report something† program also has a â€Å"Chicken Little† upshot. For instance, if New

Exchange Rate Risk Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Exchange Rate Risk - Assignment Example Economic exposure involves potential negative effect on business future cash flows from foreign subsidiaries due to fluctuation of exchange rate (Madura, 2012). The various hedging strategies that GBATT can employ to cushion exchange rate risk entails futures contract, forward contract, and options contract (Madura, 2012). GBATT can employ the futures contract to avoid exchange rate risk by entering into a contract with a financial institution on the price and quantity of foreign currencies that will be applied at a specific date. Similarly, the forward contract can be applied by specifying the price at which the foreign currency will be exchanged at with a financial institution in a contract. The options strategy on the other hand will involve entering into an agreement that will give GBATT to sell the foreign denominated currencies but not an obligation at a given rate to domestic currency at specific date. Consequently, the three hedging strategies will enable GBATT to avoid exchange rate volatility. One of the firms that employ hedging strategies to cushion exchange rate risk is Coca Cola Company to reduce translation exposure from its foreign subsidiaries (Coca-Cola.com, 2012). In addition, Dell Corporation has adopted hedging strategies to cushion exchange rate fluctuation (Dell,

Art history comparison of two works Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Art history comparison of two works - Essay Example River in the Catskills captures the effects of industrialization which was slowly but surely making its presence felt even in the bucolic landscape of the Catskill Mountains. Albert Bierstadt’s The Buffalo Trail retains much of the landscape without depicting any interference of modern life. Coles work is in contrast from his earlier work, and here we see there are no large trees to frame the picture and thus what we get is an open landscape. In the middle distance can be seen a locomotive engine and some railroad cars. In the foreground can be seen a man looking out at these modern contraptions, while beside him can be seen trees which have been cut down. Bierstadt’s painting, on the other hand, binds the attention of the viewer by the tall trees in the foreground and the beginnings of a storm which just may unleash itself at any moment. The two paintings differ from each other most pointedly in the use of color. Coles painting uses a large number of colors from the palette, while Bierstadt’s landscape is made up of muted colors, the emphasis being on the grays and browns. In Coles work there is no large tree, while the other painting shows the grandeur of nature, both by incorporating the big trees as well as the herd of buffaloes crossing the river. Thomas Cole’s River in the Catskills has confounded scholars because it â€Å"does not readily fall into an established category of landscape painting† (Wallach, Alan, June2002) but there is no doubt that it is a pastoral scene where we can see the distress of the artist at the encroachment of modernity. This painting is also more realistic, since we see the artist bringing in the idea of change that will necessarily follow whenever inventions begin to coexist in this pastoral scene. Bierstadt’s landscape is on the other hand a work in which we can see how the painter has given us an illusion of space. He achieves this by keeping the middle ground and background clear of unnecessary details and in

Comparison between a mythical story and a short story Essay

Comparison between a mythical story and a short story - Essay Example He challenges any knight to hit him once if he could return the blow with in a year. Gawain takes up the challenge. He chops off the head of the Green Knight, but the Green Knight picks up his head and rides away. Gawain has one year and one day to make it to the Green Chapel in order to fulfill his agreement. The trip was treacherous and far. Finally, he comes to a castle, where the Lord is Bertilak de Hautdesert. Gawain and Bertilak make a deal. Everything Gawain earns in a day he will exchange with Bertilak for everything he captured hunting. In three days, Gawain gains kisses and a girdle from Lady Bertilak. He gives Lord Bertilak the kisses, but keeps the girdle due to its magical powers. Gawain goes and meets the Green Knight. He only gets nicked on the neck due to the girdle. After the blow, the Green Knight reveals he is Lord Bertilak. The whole quest was set up by Arthur’s sister. Gawain felt that he failed in his mission for not keeping his word and keeping the girdl e. In â€Å"A Worn Path†, Phoenix starts out on a day’s journey. She is an lder black woman. Phoenix is described as small, frail, and almost blind. Her troubles are the wooded area that she is traveling. Thorn bushes grab her dress, but she patiently frees herself without ripping her dress. A scarecrow frightens her, but she keeps going.

Art history comparison of two works Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Art history comparison of two works - Essay Example River in the Catskills captures the effects of industrialization which was slowly but surely making its presence felt even in the bucolic landscape of the Catskill Mountains. Albert Bierstadt’s The Buffalo Trail retains much of the landscape without depicting any interference of modern life. Coles work is in contrast from his earlier work, and here we see there are no large trees to frame the picture and thus what we get is an open landscape. In the middle distance can be seen a locomotive engine and some railroad cars. In the foreground can be seen a man looking out at these modern contraptions, while beside him can be seen trees which have been cut down. Bierstadt’s painting, on the other hand, binds the attention of the viewer by the tall trees in the foreground and the beginnings of a storm which just may unleash itself at any moment. The two paintings differ from each other most pointedly in the use of color. Coles painting uses a large number of colors from the palette, while Bierstadt’s landscape is made up of muted colors, the emphasis being on the grays and browns. In Coles work there is no large tree, while the other painting shows the grandeur of nature, both by incorporating the big trees as well as the herd of buffaloes crossing the river. Thomas Cole’s River in the Catskills has confounded scholars because it â€Å"does not readily fall into an established category of landscape painting† (Wallach, Alan, June2002) but there is no doubt that it is a pastoral scene where we can see the distress of the artist at the encroachment of modernity. This painting is also more realistic, since we see the artist bringing in the idea of change that will necessarily follow whenever inventions begin to coexist in this pastoral scene. Bierstadt’s landscape is on the other hand a work in which we can see how the painter has given us an illusion of space. He achieves this by keeping the middle ground and background clear of unnecessary details and in

The ethics of emotion-arousing & psychoactive ads and their influence Essay

The ethics of emotion-arousing & psychoactive ads and their influence on individuals - Essay Example they depend upon the fact that prospective customers would be interested in obtaining more information about the product and services so that they can arrive at the logically best choice. On the other hand, an emotional appeal is used to create an ambience, to invoke a general feeling - of goodwill or of fear or urgency or any other diverse emotions. It is expected that the aroused feelings would incite and encourage the prospective customer to buy the products associated with such ads. While the appeal of both the approaches has been established by several studies, some professional critics believe advertising adversely affects people and manipulates us to buy things/services by playing on our emotions. Advertising is so powerful that consumers are helpless to defend themselves against it. This has been a time long debate involving issues like not only the morality of using emotions to manipulate consumers, but also about the efficacy and potency of such ads to actually influence the purchase decision. Emotional advertising readily gains public attention when it evokes our fears and wants, sometimes at a very deep level. Some critics claim that these powerful messages are often ineffective, because consumers often tend to remember the emotions but not the product (O’Neill, 2006). The subject under consideration is vast, as scores of early researchers have tried to find evidence for the harmful effects that advertising, and especially emotional advertising has had on people o different ages. Further, an equal number of organizations and businesses have supported research extolling the powerful impacts of emotional advertising and thus providing them with the rationale of spending millions of pounds into emotional advertising. The current research will therefore narrow with scope to a more specific topic – and try to evaluate the relative effectiveness of two different kinds of emotional appeals, namely of using warmth and of using fear in ads. The

Why Are Stereotypes Dangerous and What Can Be Done to Reduce Them Essay Example for Free

Why Are Stereotypes Dangerous and What Can Be Done to Reduce Them Essay Very often, in our everyday life, we tend to make certain generalizations about things and people around us. This is because we are constantly exposed to heaps of information, and in order to cope with the complexity of the world around us, we need to generalize and categorize. [1] Sometimes we do this on purpose, with some intention. However, very often we do this subconsciously, unaware of what we are doing. Many people generalize on others according to their clothes, profession, origin, way of speaking, and many other, outer markers. This sort of thinking could be very dangerous, and it can lead us to creating stereotypes. Stereotype is a term which most people â€Å"avoid† in our time, and many of us usually deny using them at all. However, we have to admit that stereotypes are present in every segment of our lives, on television, in newspapers, books, and even in cartoons. It is obvious that stereotypes are something we cannot escape from. They can sometimes even help us, if used as a first step towards learning more about other people and cultures, as long as we are aware of their existence. [2] However, if taken to be completely true, stereotypes can be very dangerous, and can lead to prejudice, discrimination, persecution and even genocide. 3] This is the point when, apparently â€Å"hurtles† remarks and conclusions about other people, based on their appearance, way of speaking, job or nationality, become very serious. This is when people, led by some preconceived, over-generalized, and exaggerated images, start having certain expectations and assumptions about the others (prejudice), start acting and treating them in a cruel way (discrimination), or, in the worst cases, grow into something so dangerous as violation and killing of the stereotyped groups (persecution, genocide). In order for this not to happen, stereotypes should be reduced as much as possible. One of the possible ways of doing this is making people aware of the seriousness of using stereotypes, by propagating this idea through the media, introducing it in the education system, and by making people aware that every â€Å"group† is a group of different people, a group of individuals. Prejudice One of the possible dangers of using stereotypes is the fact that they can serve as bases for prejudice. Prejudice can be defined as an unfavorable opinion formed against a person or group, based on stereotypes. 4] This is dangerous because it leads us to having certain expectations about people in advance. We make our own conclusions, our own visions of those people. This can prevent us from â€Å"going further,† from exploring and getting to know more about the people we are stereotyping. One of the most common distributors of prejudice are national stereotypes. National stereotypes are usually created among groups of people who are â€Å"not so fond† of each other, and obviously, they are in most cases negative. For example, in our country, it is a common belief that all Americans are evil. This is because we have had many unpleasant situations, related to war and recent political clashes, where the Americans were â€Å"to blame. † However, this does not mean that all Americans are evil, and that all of them are war-mongers. However, many of us would not do anything to prove this to be true. There are many examples of national stereotypes found in films, and they can be a very powerful distributor of prejudice and ill-formed images of other nations. They are dangerous because they can influence viewers behavior and attitudes towards the stereotyped nations, since most people take everything broadcast on television for granted. For example, in many American Western movies, Native American people are stereotyped as savages. At first, they were noble savages, but when they became an obstacle for the Whites, they started to be stereotyped as wild, primitive, uncivilized, dangerous people who sadistically kill the Whites. These stereotypical portrayals of the Natives gave way to thinking that all Natives were cruel savages and villains. However, people who ever had any interest in American history know that the situation was quite the opposite. In a similar way, African American people sometimes happen to be the thugs- drug dealers, or even the murderers in the American films. In a recent American film Lakeview Terrace, a couple of young Americans move to a new town, where they are tortured by their next door neighbor, who is accidentally or not- Black. Although this is said not to be done on purpose, people who watch this sort of movies can subconsciously form negative attitudes towards African American people. Led by this wrong image propagated on television, people can subconsciously create negative opinion about them. For example, a person walking through a park at night, on encountering a group of Blacks, will probably not feel the same as if, for example, they came across a group of Whites. [5] Another example of national stereotypes that is a common basis for prejudice is the world-wide known English stereotype, a reserved, cold, stiff-upper-lips. [6] These typical English characteristics became so widely present in the media, that most people apply them as real English characteristics. This, of course, is not true, simply because all people are different, and we cannot apply one characteristic to a group, without considering it as a group of individuals. However, people usually believe in everything they hear or see on TV, and consequently form some kind of expectations and prejudice against the people they do not actually know. To prove this to be true, some of my colleagues and me had some people from our environment interviewed on this topic. It is interesting that most of them had similar answers, and almost everyone said the English were reserved, snobbish, and even evil. Americans were fat and stupid, self-centered. Although none of them would admit to be stereotyping, they all somehow knew this was true. Many of them, when asked if they would ever live in these countries responded negativelly, because the people were bad. Thus they had some prejudices formed against these people, and did not want to do anything to help them understand and appreciate the other culture. Discrimination When the stereotypes we have formed last for too long in our minds, they can grow and develop into something more serious than prejudice. This is when we start acting and treating other people in a different, often bad and inhumane way. [7] This is another possible danger of using stereotypes, which is called discrimination. There are many different types of discrimination, based on appearance, age, nationality, sex, etc. One of the most common forms of discrimination is based on a well known stereotype found in many movies, magazines, and even in cartoons. It is the stereotype of a dumb blonde. [8] It is an image of a girl who is physically attractive, but lacks brains. This stereotype is so powerful, that very often all blonde girls are considered to be stupid, and are not taken seriously, which in some cases can affect their lives, especially when it comes to their intellectual abilities. In one of the famous Hollywood movies starring Reese Witherspoon, Legally Blonde, the main character suffers the consequences of being blonde. Namely, the girl in the film enrolls in Harvard, but is immediatelly looked down on by h er colleagues, and considered to be stupid and superficial just because of her looks. However, at the end of the movie, she manages to graduate from Harvard, and proves the stereotype to be false. Although this fim is often considered to be teen-oriented and not very serious, it tells a story that can happen in real life, and it sends a message to people that stereotypes can lead to discrimination and affect peoples lives. Additionally to this, some national stereotypes can serve as a starting point for discrimination, too. In our country, Gypsies are often looked down on, and are stereotyped as dirty, uneducated, loud, and very often as thieves. Although many of us would decisively deny to be stereotyping Gypsies as such, reality is very cruel for them, and they are often victims of discrimination and even persecution. Beside this racial discrimination, in some cultures discrimination is based on the stereotypical portrayal of women as the ‘weaker sex,’ incapable of doing any kind of normal work but everyday chores. In cultures like these, (Indian, Egyptian, etc. ) women are discriminated against and their basic human rights are violated. In a recent documentary on ‘National Geographic,’[9] an American was obliged to leave his country, and go to Saudi Arabia to work. There he faced many differences between his and the Arabian culture. He was amazed by the fact that his girlfriend, who applied for a job of a photographer, was turned down with no obvious reason. However, later in the documentary, it was revealed by an Arabic woman that in their country, this was ‘not a job for a woman. ’ In their country, women are not supposed to be seen out very often, especially without their husbands, and they are supposed to take care of their home and children. This, of course, was a shock for the American, and he said he could not believe that things like this happened in 21st century. However, this proves again that stereotypes are dangerous and that they can lead to discrimination, in this case of women as a weaker sex, incapable of doing any proper job. Additionally, discrimination that results from stereotyping can even be more dangerous, if we do not take into consideration people’s feelings. Very often, especially in the age of adolescence, young people tend to stereotype their overweight friends as if they belonged to some different group of people. Although the young ones do not think about the effect of their stereotyping, it can be very painful and can cause harmful effects on the stereotyped group. Moreover, discrimination of the overweight can even be done by the teachers, the adults. For example, when I was in high school, at one of our physical education classes, we were supposed to compete in high jump. Just before the competition, the teacher told one of my friends that he did not have to take part in this, because he was aware he could not jump (he was a bit overweight). The fact that this was said in front of the whole class made him feel even more miserable. This is an example of discriminating overweight people, by stereotyping them as unable to perform things as well as the others. Situations like these can be very dangerous, and can have horrible effects on an individual, such as emotional stress and low self-esteem. [10] One of the most widely present forms of discrimination based on stereotypes is sexual discrimination. Even though we live in modern times, the issue of homosexuality is still considered to be something unacceptable, and people belonging to this ‘group’ are considered to be weird and are often stereotyped negatively. This varies from country to country, but they are generally stereotyped as effeminate, incapable of doing any serious jobs (except for fashion related ones), and many people feel some kind of inexplicable scorn towards them. This especially is the case in our country, where homosexuality is still a taboo, and where homosexuals are considered less than humans. Except for the emotional pain, these people are often turned down at a job interview, or are fired if their sexual orientation is revealed. A famous Hollywood actress, Ellen DeGeneres, in one of the shows that has been on TV recently, said that when she openly admitted she was gay, her TV show, which was at its peak at the moment, was suddenly cancelled. ‘The network executives blamed low ratings, but the reason was quite obvious,’ said the actress, alluding to her public reveal of being homosexual. This discrimination of homosexuals is an issue that has been discussed many times in the media. In a recent episode of ‘Oprah Winfrey Show,’ the topic of the day was the discrimination of homosexuals. People from all over the world were telling their sad stories, and there was even a girl from Brazil who talked about her terrible experience, when a group of angry youths attacked her, and raped her, causing her both physical and emotional injuries, just because she admitted she was homosexual. This leads us to the final and most terrible effects of stereotyping- persecution and genocide.

Análisis de la Producción Legislativa 1990-2008

Anà ¡lisis de la Produccià ³n Legislativa 1990-2008 I. Resumen El presente trabajo titulado â€Å"Anà ¡lisis de la Produccià ³n Legislativa 1990-2008†, tiene el propà ³sito de analizar el desempeà ±o institucional del Congreso, como Poder del Estado, especà ­ficamente a su funcià ³n legislativa, en el perà ­odo comprendido entre el 1 ° de enero de 1990 al 31 de diciembre del 2008. Esta investigacià ³n nace de la inquietud de la relacià ³n entre el Poder Ejecutivo y el Poder Legislativo a raà ­z de la modificacià ³n a nuestra Constitucià ³n en el aà ±o de 1994. Luego de una crisis de legitimidad de unos comicios electorales, se modifica la fecha de las elecciones para elegir al Presidente de la Repà ºblica; nos encontramos con un Poder Legislativo, donde la mitad del perà ­odo iniciarà ­a con un ejecutivo y la otra mitad con otro ejecutivo diferente. Surge la inquietud de evaluar la produccià ³n legislativa y La Efectividad del Poder Legislativo: Entre el Poder Polà ­tico y el Poder Institucional Hablar de la labor del Congreso en tà ©rminos de produccià ³n presenta retos conceptuales significativos pues dicha labor no es reducible a una cuantà ­a objetiva y tangible sobre lo que pueda emitir el criterio comà ºn. Existe una dimensià ³n cuantificable en dicha labor: el Nà ºmero de leyes y Resoluciones emanados de la Asamblea Legislativa en determinado perà ­odo. Intentar dar igual peso a cada unidad de legislacià ³n representarà ­a importantes diferencias cualitativas entre ellas. Peor aà ºn, puede crear una ilusià ³n de eficiencia en perà ­odos en que crece la aprobacià ³n de leyes triviales o de ineficiencia en perà ­odos en que se aprueban tan solo unas pocas pero fundamentales. Es posible analizar la legislacià ³n aprobada cualitativamente, clasificando su relevancia segà ºn la opinià ³n de expertos (Mayhew, 1991). No obstante, es imposible hacerlo sin introducir un alto grado de subjetividad en el anà ¡lisis. La excelencia objetiva de la legislacià ³n aprobada solo puede valorarse con respecto a la legislacià ³n potencial-la agenda polà ­tica en un momento determinado. El estudio analiza y evalà ºa la produccià ³n del Poder Legislativo como à ³rgano de gobierno. Aunque las funciones del Parlamento son muy amplias y variadas (representar, debatir, controlar) su actividad legislativa es la que lo ubica como Poder co-gobernante y le otorga una posicià ³n central en el proceso polà ­tico de toma de decisiones. La razà ³n para analizar la produccià ³n legislativa del Congreso consiste precisamente en que el cumplimiento de sus otras funciones ha sido visto, frecuentemente, como un obstà ¡culo para su desempeà ±o como à ³rgano de gobierno. Adicionalmente, su condicià ³n asambleistita y el pluralismo de su integracià ³n, son los factores estructurales que apoyan una visià ³n crà ­tica que ve al Poder Legislativo como una institucià ³n â€Å"ineficiente† que bloquea el proceso de gobierno. En consecuencia, este anà ¡lisis y evaluacià ³n de la produccià ³n legislativa del parlamento busca establecer con precisià ³n la cuantà ­a de su contribucià ³n al proceso de gobierno y las caracterà ­sticas con que se desarrolla. Nuestro trabajo se centra, especà ­ficamente en las leyes y reformas a leyes aprobadas por mayorà ­a absoluta y no aborda las otras funciones constitucionales del Congreso. Dentro de este campo, la investigacià ³n presenta los siguientes productos: a) Nà ºmero total de leyes promulgadas por el Poder Ejecutivo; b) Ordenamiento de ese conjunto en base a un â€Å"Indice de Importancia Polà ­tica†, con una metodologà ­a de ponderacià ³n; c) Efectividad del Poder Ejecutivo y del Poder Legislativo en materia de iniciativas legislativas sancionadas en dicho perà ­odo, d) Vetos Institucionales, e) Nà ºmero de Partidos Polà ­ticos. Los resultados de la investigacià ³n en cada uno de estos puntos, se exponen en los respectivos capà ­tulos del informe, respaldado con cuadros y grà ¡ficas. El estudio està ¡ organizado de la siguiente manera: El Primer Capà ­tulo del informe es fundamentalmente un desarrollo conceptual que presenta una caracterizacià ³n del parlamento como institucià ³n. Inicialmente se establecen, de forma general, el conjunto de funciones de los parlamentos en los regà ­menes democrà ¡ticos y se muestra como sus caracterà ­sticas pueden variar en funcià ³n de ciertos aspectos del diseà ±o institucional. En el segundo apartado se da cuenta de las crà ­ticas que han recibido los Congresos tanto desde quienes le exigen eficiencia como desde los que lo acusan de debilidad institucional. Finalmente se desarrolla una caracterizacià ³n del parlamento dominicano, describiendo su ubicacià ³n institucional, composicià ³n, funciones, se describen las normas que regulan el proceso legislativo y algunas puntualizaciones sobre la evolucià ³n del Congreso en las dinà ¡micas de gobierno. El Segundo Capà ­tulo del informe desarrolla una propuesta metodolà ³gica para evaluar la produccià ³n legislativa del parlamento. Como es natural, el trabajo parte de la consideracià ³n de la cantidad de leyes sancionadas por el Poder Legislativo. El nà ºmero total es 1329 leyes en 18 aà ±os es en sà ­ mismo significativo. De todas formas parece obvio que las normas aprobadas son de muy diversa naturaleza, complejidad e impacto. En consecuencia un anà ¡lisis en profundidad debe necesariamente realizar una discriminacià ³n entre ellas. Es asà ­, que de forma complementaria se propone la utilizacià ³n de un â€Å"à ­ndice de importancia† de las leyes que las clasifica en cuatro categorà ­as en funcià ³n de la utilizacià ³n de cuatro criterios. Los criterios refieren a: i) el origen del proyecto en funcià ³n de resulta de una iniciativa del Poder Ejecutivo o del propio Poder Legislativo; ii) su alcance en tà ©rminos de impacto en la sociedad; iii) la repercusià ³n en la opinià ³n pà ºblica; y iv) la existencia o no de debates en los plenarios de las cà ¡maras. El à ­ndice se construye agregando los cuatro valores para cada ley generando cuatro categorà ­as de importancia: Muy alta, alta, media y baja. El Tercer Capà ­tulo entra de lleno en el anà ¡lisis longitudinal de la produccià ³n legislativa en Repà ºblica Dominicana, 1990-2008. En primer tà ©rmino se muestra la evolucià ³n del nà ºmero de leyes aprobadas durante los 18 aà ±os incluidos en el estudio. En esta primera aproximacià ³n se constatan dos regularidades. a) Es la aparicià ³n de una tendencia creciente con el tiempo en el nà ºmero total de leyes aprobadas. b) Es la presencia de un ciclo dentro de cada legislatura que muestra una tendencia al aumento en el nà ºmero total de leyes aprobadas hacia el final de cada perà ­odo legislativo. En segundo tà ©rmino se observa la legislacià ³n aprobada durante el perà ­odo de anà ¡lisis en funcià ³n de los resultados que surgen de la aplicacià ³n del à ­ndice de importancia de las leyes. Allà ­ se observa que las leyes de baja importancia son la mayorà ­a. Asimismo los diferentes tipos de leyes muestran comportamientos cà ­clicos disà ­miles dentro de cada legislatura. Mientras la aprobacià ³n de leyes de alta importancia se concentra en los primeros aà ±os de cada perà ­odo presidencial. Se sostiene que esta diferencia obedece principalmente a dos factores. A) el Poder Ejecutivo promueve a nivel legislativo buena parte de su agenda de gobierno al inicio de cada administracià ³n. B) en los primeros aà ±os de cada mandato se constituyeron mayorà ­as legislativas que hicieron viables los proyectos propuestos por el gobierno, esa incidencia se manifiesta de forma muy fuerte al inicio de cada administracià ³n y va decayendo con el transcurso de la misma. El cuarto capà ­tulo: Claramente el alto porcentaje de leyes importantes aprobadas por unanimidad en el perà ­odo 1996-200 obedece a la legislacià ³n vinculada al proceso de desarrollo institucional que vivià ³ el paà ­s. En cuanto a la disciplina legislativa de los partidos polà ­ticos, lo primero a destacar es que todos los partidos dominicanos, contrariamente a lo que se cree, muestran niveles de disciplina muy altos. Al considerar las votaciones de las leyes de alta importancia, se observa que en la gran mayorà ­a de ellas, todos los partidos votaron en bloque. El à ºltimo capà ­tulo del informe estudia la interposicià ³n de vetos por parte del Poder Ejecutivo a las leyes aprobadas por el Parlamento. Este comportamiento responderà ¡ de forma evidente a la existencia y permanencia de una coalicià ³n mayoritaria de gobierno o como reaccià ³n del Poder Ejecutivo, en condicià ³n minoritaria, frente a un Parlamento que tiende a mostrarse â€Å"proactivo† y ajeno a sus prioridades en materia polà ­tica, a medida que se aproximan las siguientes elecciones. En una apreciacià ³n inicial, considerà ¡bamos que los congresos eran dà ©biles desde el punto de vista de la produccià ³n legislativa quienes otorgan la legitimidad democrà ¡tica al proceso ordinario de elaboracià ³n de la ley. Es decir, el paso de las leyes por el Congreso, no sà ³lo es obligatorio en todo proceso legislativo, sino que es el elemento legitimador de las mismas ante la sociedad. Durante el desarrollo de la investigacià ³n fue evidente que el Legislativo es un à ³rgano sumamente complejo, que requiere de anà ¡lisis muy detallados sobre las dinà ¡micas que le dan forma. Debemos reconocer que en Amà ©rica Latina el Poder Legislativo es un actor mà ¡s poderoso de lo que generalmente se cree y que —precisamente por ello— es necesario tenerlo en cuenta, pues en muchas ocasiones termina moldeando y acotando el poder que se atribuye a la Presidencia de la Repà ºblica. La propia investigacià ³n deja abiertas varias interrogantes y muestra la necesidad de profundizar en otras funciones del Congreso, que son igualmente relevantes y que en conjunto muestran la efectiva densidad del desempeà ±o y de la legitimidad de las Cà ¡maras como cuerpos primarios del sistema democrà ¡tico: control y fiscalizacià ³n del Poder Ejecutivo y de otros organismos estatales. Dentro de este campo, la investigacià ³n pudiese desarrollar los siguientes productos: a) desempeà ±o de los partidos polà ­ticos, en tà ©rminos de incitativa legislativa y en tà ©rminos de disciplina; b) anà ¡lisis del proceso de tramitacià ³n de las leyes consideradas, disciplina de los conjuntos partidarios, etc. Serà ­a interesante poder evaluar la capacidad de propuesta y de respuesta de las representaciones congresionales, las modificaciones que se introducen a los proyectos en debate y los eventuales rechazos, los tipos de aprobacià ³n y sus alternativas concretas, observando las formas de disciplina, los intercambios y los procesos de negociacià ³n (inter e intra partidarios y sectoriales, entre los legisladores y los agentes ejecutivos) y estudiar los procesos de trabajo en las comisiones, que constituyen nà ºcleos estratà ©gicos de la labor legislativa y laboratorios privilegiados para el anà ¡lisis. Todo lo cual implica una relacià ³n inter-institucional compleja y un proceso dinà ¡mico de construccià ³n de mayorà ­as, para la sancià ³n de cada producto legislativo concreto. Sin perjuicio de alguna publicacià ³n, por mà ­ desconocida, que sirva de antecedente, el presente trabajo corresponderà ­a al primer estudio de este tipo que se realiza en el Repà ºblica Dominicana, lo que es un avance importante para el anà ¡lisis de polà ­tica comparada. Confiamos en que el producto inicial de à ©ste informe sea de utilidad para la labor legislativa, los estudios acadà ©micos. Es nuestro interà ©s abrir el debate de la funcià ³n de los poderes legislativos en el entorno presidencialista. Esperamos que de su lectura el lector especializado pueda extraer à ¡ngulos de anà ¡lisis o sugerencias que deberà ¡n contribuir al despliegue de su propia reflexià ³n. II. El Congreso Como Institucià ³n 2.1.Tiempos de Cambios El Congreso ocupa un lugar relevante en la estructura de gobierno de Repà ºblica Dominicana, como lo establece la normativa constitucional, pero tambià ©n a causa de las modalidades del rà ©gimen polà ­tico y de la composicià ³n nutrida del arco de partidos, afirmando una cultura cà ­vica con tradiciones democrà ¡ticas. Es sin duda una institucià ³n estratà ©gica de un sistema que se ha ajustado histà ³ricamente a un formato efectivo de separacià ³n, de independencia y de equilibrio entre los poderes del estado, que resulta a su vez alimentado por la dinà ¡mica polà ­tica, las representaciones de la ciudadanà ­a y la intervencià ³n consistente de los partidos. Varias circunstancias han ayudado a à ©ste perfil. En primer tà ©rmino, existe una tendencia histà ³rica universal de larga data que afecta a todos los sistemas democrà ¡ticos y que redunda en el reforzamiento del papel del Poder Ejecutivo y de las demà ¡s unidades de la administracià ³n en los procesos decisorios. Mà ¡s que à ³rganos de ejecucià ³n tenemos asà ­ un verdadero â€Å"poder gubernamental† -segà ºn la acertada caracterizacià ³n de Maurice Duverger [1](1962)- que se desarrolla como nà ºcleo de produccià ³n polà ­tica, en un sistema cambiante de relaciones institucionales, con nuevos và ­nculos de separacià ³n y articulacià ³n, cooperacià ³n y competencia entre los cuerpos mayores de gobierno, que modifican a su vez las caracterà ­sticas del proceso legislativo y los congresos de ejercicio de las demà ¡s funciones del Congreso. En tà ©rminos mà ¡s generales, las transformaciones corrientes inciden en la configuracià ³n de los factores de poder y de las alternativas de control, en el à ¡mbito de la economà ­a y en el conjunto de la sociedad. Se modifican las formas, las funciones y hasta el alcances de la polà ­tica, el oficio de los partidos y los patrones de legitimacià ³n, en un contexto de creciente complejidad y al tiempo que van cambiando las estructuras del estado y los modos de gobierno, los sistemas de gestià ³n pà ºblica y los requerimientos tà ©cnicos De este conjunto de factores y de las transformaciones concurrentes en la normativa constitucional, surge otro cuadro de condiciones para el ejercicio del Poder Legislativo. Nuevos componentes y problemas en la fabricacià ³n de la polà ­tica y de la legislacià ³n, un atado de relaciones institucionales de balance dificultoso y relativamente asimà ©trico. Habrà ¡ exigencias renovadas en la gestià ³n parlamentaria, particularmente en lo que toca a los procesos de trabajo y a la organizacià ³n, a los flujos de informacià ³n y a la disposicià ³n de saberes, a la capacidad colectiva de sus cuerpos y al desempeà ±o particular de los representantes y las bancadas, a las relaciones con la ciudadanà ­a y la opinià ³n pà ºblica. Estos elementos trazan un escenario de transicià ³n: en el que el Congreso es un actor con responsabilidades primarias en los procesos de cambio y debe tramitar a la vez su propia reconversià ³n polà ­tica e institucional. Siendo de hecho, sujeto y objeto de la reforma polà ­tica y del estado. Un centro que compite por participar con efectividad en los procesos de decisià ³n y un organismo mutante, que ha de ajustarse a las innovaciones en curso, mejorar sus capacidades y la calidad de su produccià ³n, corrigiendo sus dà ©ficits de â€Å"modernizacià ³n† y afrontando constantemente nuevos desafà ­os. 2.2. El Congreso: Funciones y Desafà ­os A travà ©s de distintas à ©pocas histà ³ricas, desde la antigua Grecia, las ciudades-estados, hasta nuestros dà ­as, y con modalidades por cierto muy diversas, la existencia de una asamblea deliberante y representativa, que albergue las expresiones del pluralismo y sea una instancia de participacià ³n, constituye una pieza fundamental en la configuracià ³n de un Rà ©gimen Polà ­tico Legà ­timo. En los sistemas democrà ¡ticos modernos, los Congresos son precisamente asambleas de naturaleza colectiva, composicià ³n plural y carà ¡cter permanente (Cotta, 1988), cuya centralidad deriva de las competencias que en esa condicià ³n tiene asignadas, como poder del estado y à ³rgano de gobierno: representacià ³n polà ­tica y debate, cuerpo de control e instancia de decisià ³n, titular primario de la funcià ³n legislativa y responsable de otras funciones pà ºblicas (constituyentes, jurisdiccionales, de administracià ³n, actos habilitantes o de autorizacià ³n). La fortaleza y la debilidad de los partidos y del sistema de partidos, su consistencia y su grado de institucionalizacià ³n, influyen obviamente en el peso polà ­tico y la capacidad de accià ³n del Congreso. Por otra parte, el balance entre el Poder Legislativo y el Poder Ejecutivo, el ascendiente del Jefe de Gobierno, las formas de articular su liderazgo y de ejercer la conduccià ³n polà ­tica, asà ­ como sus potestades para determinar la agenda parlamentaria, que dependen de las recursos institucionales de que à ©ste dispone por derecho, pueden igualmente variar en funcià ³n de los poderes de fuente partidaria y asimismo, con la formacià ³n de coaliciones polà ­ticas. La forma de las coaliciones y en particular, los và ­nculos de cooperacià ³n y de competencia entre los partidos asociados, asà ­ como las relaciones con otros partidos y con las escuadras de oposicià ³n, dibujan el margen de discrecionalidad polà ­tica del Presidente, modelan los trà ¡mites concretos de formacià ³n de mayorà ­as y determinan (o â€Å"sobre-determinan†) las modalidades de construccià ³n de la agenda congresional y los procesos legislativos. Segà ºn ello, las Cà ¡maras y los sectores partidarios representados los que està ¡n en la oposicià ³n y los que revistan en la coalicià ³n que apoya al gobierno- pueden tener frente a à ©ste, alternativas diversas de autonomà ­a y de disciplina, con diferentes posibilidades de iniciativa y de respuesta. No obstante, en casi todas las democracias modernas, las grandes decisiones pasan necesariamente por el Parlamento, mediante actos de habilitacià ³n o autorizacià ³n y afirmando las prà ¡cticas del â€Å"gobierno por legislacià ³n† (Sartori, 1994). El Parlamento se ubica en una posicià ³n estratà ©gica, como poder del estado y à ³rgano de gobierno, en articulacià ³n con los otros poderes y con la red compleja de entidades que componen la estructura pà ºblica. Por su naturaleza y su calidad intrà ­nseca es depositario mayor de la soberanà ­a y tiene a su cargo el cumplimiento de cometidos que resultan esenciales para el desenvolvimiento del rà ©gimen democrà ¡tico, en tà ©rminos de legitimidad y de equilibrio institucional, de garantà ­as ciudadanas y de calidad de los procesos de decisià ³n polà ­tica. 2.3. Las Crà ­ticas al Congreso. Los eventos de la à ©poca han afectado la imagen pà ºblica del Parlamento y lo enfrentan a crà ­ticas y autocrà ­ticas, que apuntan doblemente a su là ³gica de funcionamiento y a su debilidad institucional, con razonamientos que hacen pie en la realidad parlamentaria y tienen causa cierta, pero no dejan de ser a la vez paradà ³jicos y con puntos discutibles. Ante las crà ­ticas recordadas cabe reafirmar que el cumplimiento estricto y adecuado de las responsabilidades Constitucionales del Parlamento es un componente fundamental de la calidad de la democracia y de la legitimidad del Sistema Polà ­tico. Esta premisa vale para el conjunto de las competencias del Parlamento, tanto para la funcià ³n legislativa, como para las funciones de representacià ³n y de control, en su calidad de instancia deliberativa y de à ³rgano de gobierno. En lo que toca especà ­ficamente al Proceso de Produccià ³n Legislativa hay que tener en cuenta el equilibrio complejo y de hecho la tensià ³n, entre los distintos â€Å"factores† y â€Å"valores† que intervienen: las necesidades del gobierno y los requerimientos de la participacià ³n parlamentaria, la calidad de la ley junto con la celeridad y la eficiencia en su tramitacià ³n, los intereses de la jefatura ejecutiva y las alternativas de respuesta que surgen en el recinto legislativo, el propà ³sito de construccià ³n de mayorà ­as, las disidencias en los bloques oficialistas y el derecho de oposicià ³n. La relacià ³n existente entre los Poderes Legislativo y Ejecutivo, debe ser analizada como una relacià ³n de equilibrio, de coordinacià ³n y de competencia. Este dispositivo regular, se presenta de manera caracterà ­stica en el tipo de gobierno presidencial, que ha sido definido como â€Å"un sistema de instituciones separadas que comparten el poder† (Neustadt, 1960). Tenemos asà ­ un esquema de separacià ³n, con dos instituciones legitimadas por una eleccià ³n directa, que por naturaleza y por diseà ±o, comparten el poder y compiten por à ©l en rigor, son orgà ¡nicamente â€Å"alentadas a competir† (Charles Jones, 1994), a fin de hacer valer su propia representacià ³n y para concretar su participacià ³n en los procesos de gobierno (Sartori, 1994 y Mark Jones, 1995). En tà ©rminos generales, en estos principios deberà ­a basarse el anà ¡lisis adecuado de las funciones del Parlamento, asà ­ como los debates tà ©cnicos y polà ­ticos sobre su performance, tanto en una perspectiva histà ³rica, como en lo que toca a las alternativas del tiempo actual. Y es con tales fundamentos en una reivindicacià ³n explà ­cita de los postulados indicados que entendemos necesario encarar este estudio sobre la Produccià ³n Legislativa, dentro de las coordenadas especà ­ficas del sistema dominicano. 2.4. El Proceso Legislativo Dominicano Las caracterà ­sticas del proceso legislativo en Repà ºblica Dominicana son conocidas y resultan familiares para los agentes polà ­ticos y en particular para los parlamentarios. Sin detenernos pues en los detalles de su descripcià ³n, creemos no obstante conveniente repasar algunos de los rasgos principales que encuadran dicho proceso desde el punto de vista polà ­tico institucional. En este sentido, debemos subrayar que se trata de un proceso regulado minuciosamente por la propia Constitucià ³n de la Repà ºblica en forma mà ¡s detallada que en otros à ³rdenes jurà ­dicos. Historia: El Poder Legislativo dominicano tiene su origen en el informe de la comisià ³n encargada de redactar la Constitucià ³n de 1844 que debà ­a ser sometido para su discusià ³n al Soberano Congreso Constituyente. La primera Constitucià ³n Dominicana del 6 de Noviembre de 1844 consagrà ³ un Congreso Nacional compuesto por 2 Cà ¡maras: El Tribunado y el Consejo Conservador. El trabajo de esos cuerpos legislativos en ese primer aà ±o fue intenso y lleno de dificultades, pues en el paà ­s todo estaba por reglamentarse. Entre las disposiciones tomadas, pueden citarse; la Ley de Instruccià ³n Pà ºblica, la Ley de Patentes de Navegacià ³n, la Ley del Rà ©gimen de Aduanas, la Ley de Administracià ³n Provincial, la Ley de Subdivisià ³n Polà ­tica de las Provincias, la Ley de Atribuciones y Responsabilidades de los Secretarios de Estado, la Ley que adaptà ³ los Cà ³digos Franceses y la Reforma a los Bienes Nacionales; entre otras. Funcià ³n: El Artà ­culo 16 de la Constitucià ³n Dominicana le asigna una definicià ³n especà ­fica de â€Å"Congreso de la Repà ºblica†, institucià ³n polà ­tica colegiada, de carà ¡cter pluralista y electivo, que funciona normalmente dentro del contexto de las democracias liberales, cuyas atribuciones principales son hacer las leyes, examinar todos los actos del Poder Ejecutivo y ejercer control sobre el gobierno y la administracià ³n en general. El Congreso ejerce el poder constituyente derivado. Esta conformacià ³n de las asambleas parlamentarias supone el establecimiento de un cuerpo estable y especializado, que inviste la representacià ³n de la ciudadanà ­a y de los partidos en un à ¡mbito de pluralidad, como: o Cuerpo Deliberante: Realizan deliberaciones e intercambio de posiciones y luego son discutidos pà ºblicamente por una asamblea constituida en autoridad pà ºblica. o Cuerpo Representativo: Permiten canalizar demandas emergentes (en tà ©rminos de agregacià ³n y regulacià ³n, de compromiso y de autoridad, articulando los intereses particulares con las producciones de interà ©s general). o Es un Órgano Polà ­tico Colegiado: Compuesto por un grupo de personas elegidas democrà ¡ticamente mediante sufragio popular para representar a los ciudadanos. o Es una Asamblea de Carà ¡cter Permanente: El Congreso origina decisiones continuamente, asegurando la gobernabilidad. o Expresià ³n de Pluralismo Polà ­tico: Es la à ºnica institucià ³n que consiente la presencia conjunta y continua de todos los sujetos polà ­ticos y no excluye ningà ºn sector social; llevà ¡ndole en fin a recoger opinià ³n, formarla y participar en las opciones de gobierno, fundamentalmente mediante la construccià ³n del orden jurà ­dico y del imperio de la ley, dentro de un estatuto constitucional que ofrece garantà ­as de divisià ³n de poderes, de control y de equilibrio polà ­tico. De acuerdo con el mandato Constitucional y las normas reglamentarias de la institucià ³n, las funciones Congresionales son tres: Legislar, Fiscalizar y Representar. o La actividad de Legislar o de hacer leyes es considerada la funcià ³n bà ¡sica de un Congreso, ya que los Senadores y Diputados tienen la indelegable misià ³n de transformar en textos claros, precisos y coherentes todo aquello que se pretende instituir como norma para regir conductas o relaciones individuales o colectivas. o El mandato y el mecanismo de Fiscalizacià ³n se refiere a la inspeccià ³n, fiscalizacià ³n, revisià ³n e interpelacià ³n sobre la actividad que realizan el Poder Ejecutivo y sus dependencias; es decir, Secretarà ­as de Estado y Direcciones Generales, asà ­ como sobre cualquier otro funcionario electo. Esta trabajo de control ejerce una funcià ³n de contrapeso frente a las actuaciones del gobierno central, o El concepto de Representacià ³n es moderno. En polà ­tica, implica actuar en interà ©s de los representados, de una manera sensible ante ellos. El compromiso de representacià ³n es doble, ya que los legisladores representan a la nacià ³n y a la provincia o circunscripcià ³n que los ha elegido. Congreso Bicameral: A travà ©s de la separacià ³n de poderes -que sigue siendo un principio vigente en las constituciones polà ­ticas modernas y en la nuestra- el Parlamento es a su manera un à ³rgano de gobierno (co-gobernante), mediante un desempeà ±o adecuado de sus dos cà ¡maras, donde ambas Cà ¡maras participan en pie de igualdad. La produccià ³n legislativa por lo que podemos decir que es un proceso fuertemente reglamentado y complejo, que presenta alternativas complicadas y diversas, desde el punto de vista del desempeà ±o institucional y la negociacià ³n polà ­tica, como pieza estratà ©gica de las acciones de gobierno. La constitucià ³n bicameral del Poder Legislativo ha sido histà ³ricamente concebida como un mecanismo que limita las posibilidades de dominio simple de una mayorà ­a parlamentaria (una eventual â€Å"tiranà ­a†, segà ºn los constitucionalistas clà ¡sicos, temerosos de la concentracià ³n de la autoridad pà ºblica) y es en sà ­ misma una garantà ­a suplementaria de la separacià ³n de poderes, actuando como un factor mà ¡s de equilibrio, al interior del organismo legislativo, en el conjunto de las instituciones pà ºblicas y en relacià ³n a la ciudadanà ­a. Es este un ingrediente bà ¡sico de la civilizacià ³n democrà ¡tica, que permite una mayor amplitud en la representacià ³n polà ­tica, favorece el pluralismo y brinda la oportunidad de un mejor procesamiento (polà ­tico y tà ©cnico) de los productos legislativos, en un mà ©rito que se extiende a otras competencias parlamentarias[2]. La estructura bicameral conlleva a que los proyectos de ley deban pasar necesariamente por el examen de ambas Cà ¡maras (â€Å"doble escrutinio†) y sà ³lo resulten aprobados si se llega a una voluntad coincidente de los dos cuerpos, con sus mayorà ­as respectivas. Si median diferencias, el proyecto es objeto de una segunda revisià ³n. Los sistemas bicamerales hacen que el proceso de la formacià ³n de la ley sea mà ¡s responsable y cuidadoso, evitando la aprobacià ³n precipitada de los proyectos y, ademà ¡s, resulta mà ¡s acorde con el rà ©gimen democrà ¡tico, por cuanto garantiza mejor una autà ©ntica representacià ³n tanto polà ­tica como regional y social. Conformacià ³n y Eleccià ³n: Nuestro Poder Legislativo està ¡ conformado por un Senado, compuesto por 32 miembros, uno por el Distrito Nacional y un representante de cada Provincia y. una Cà ¡mara de Diputados. El Senado està ¡ La Cà ¡mara de Diputados està ¡ compuesto por 178 miembros, a razà ³n de uno por cada cincuenta mil habitantes o fraccià ³n de mà ¡s de veinticinco mil. Por cada provincia debe haber por lo menos dos (Constitucià ³n Dominicana, Art. 24). Ambos representan al pueblo, a travà ©s de distintos partidos polà ­ticos, son elegidos por representacià ³n proporcional desde las listas partidarias y de forma nominal, por votacià ³n directa secreta y universal, en todo el paà ­s, para un perà ­odo de cuatro aà ±os (Constitucià ³n Dominicana, Art 21, Art. 24) Las elecciones nacionales para elegir diputados se harà ¡n mediante circunscripciones electorales con el objeto de garantizar que los ciudadanos que resulten electos en las elecciones generales, sean una verdadera representacià ³n del sector de los habitantes que los eligen.[3] La Constitucià ³n de la Repà ºblica no delega en los partidos polà ­ticos la representacià ³n del pueblo, mà ¡s bien los contempla como instrumentos para realizar el procedimiento electivo mediante el cual los ciudadanos eligen cada cuatro aà ±os a sus representantes. Quorum: En cada Cà ¡mara se requiere la presencia de mà ¡s de la mitad de sus miembros, como quà ³rum mà ­nimo para la validez de las deliberaciones. Las decisiones se toman por mayorà ­a absoluta de votos (Art. 30). La legislatura ordinaria dura noventa dà ­as, pero puede prorrogarse por sesenta dà ­as mà ¡s (Art. 33). Proceso Legislativo: En una investigacià ³n sobre la participacià ³n de los parlamentos en la produccià ³n polà ­tica, Olson y Mezey (1991) afirman que el proceso legislativo està ¡ determinado por tres conjuntos de factores: a) las influencias externas sobre la legislatura; b) la capacidad de actuacià ³n de los legisladores; y c) el contenido de las polà ­ticas que se procesan. Las influencias externas està ¡n determinadas por el dispositivo constitucional, la estructura estatal, la normativa electoral, el sistema de partidos, los intereses de los grupos de la sociedad y la agenda pà ºblica de gobierno. El alcance de actuacià ³n de los legisladores està ¡ determinado por el formato organizacional del Parlamento, las reglas de funcionamiento de las cà ¡maras y de las comisiones, las estructuras de los partidos, asà ­ como la operativa especà ­fica de las bancadas y finalmente, las caracterà ­sticas personales de los integrantes del cuerpo. El contenido de las polà ­ticas depende de la naturaleza de los proyectos que se presentan en el Parlamento y del tipo de actores e intereses a que tales proyectos afectan. Para alcanzar pues un resultado unificado, que manifieste la voluntad formal del Poder Legislativo como à ³rgano mayor del estado, es necesario recorrer un itinerario complejo, de instancias eslabonadas, que respeta la composicià ³n bicameral del Parlamento, asà ­ como la calidad representativa de los cuerpos que lo componen y de sus integrantes, respondiendo a los requerimientos tà ©cnicos y polà ­ticos de la gramà ¡tica legislativa. Este proceso està ¡ integrado por cuatro fases: a) la proposicià ³n del proyecto de ley, b) el trà ¡mite del proyecto, c) la aprobacià ³n de la ley, y d) la promulgacià ³n de la ley. En sentido general, Todo proyecto de ley puede iniciarse en cualquiera de las dos Cà ¡maras y pasan usualmente a las comisiones parlamentarias respectivas, sean à ©stas especiales o permanentes, actuando mà ¡s de una vez en forma integrada. Las comisiones son organismos fundamentales del sistema parlamentario y obran con un potencial de buena polà ­tica legislativa, agregando a esta tarea, una mayor densidad, garantà ­as y posibilidades de calidad[4]. Cuando el trabajo en la comisià ³n ha concluido, el proyecto es presentado en el plenario de la Cà ¡mara correspondiente para su discusià ³n y aprobacià ³n. Luego de admitido en una de las Cà ¡maras debe ser sometido a dos discusiones distintas, con un intervalo de un dà ­a por lo menos entre una y otra discusià ³n (Art. 39), de acuerdo al procedimiento para la aprobacià ³n de leyes. Sà ­, en el caso de que el proyecto fuese declarado de emergencia debe ser discutido en dos sesiones consecutivas (Art. 39). Cada Cà ¡mara es independientemente en sus funciones de acuerdo al criterio mayoritario de sus miembros. Cualquier proyecto de ley recibido en una Cà ¡mara, despuà ©s de haber sido aprobado en la otra, serà ¡ fijado en el orden del dà ­a; pero el mismo puede ser aprobado, modificado o rechazado por esta (Art. 40). Sancià ³n: El procedimiento de sancià ³n legislativa se inicia con el debate en Sala, a partir de la intervencià ³n de los voceros de las comisiones actuantes. Luego, los legisladores discuten el proyecto en general y luego en particular, artà ­culo por artà ­culo, mediante un procedimiento ordenado por el Reglamento de Funcionamiento de cada Cà ¡mara. Todo proyecto de ley aprobado por la Cà ¡mara de origen pasarà ¡ a la otra Cà ¡mara para su consideracià ³n, desarrollà ¡ndose un procedimiento de ida y

Bed Time Stories of the Saints Essay -- Children Stories Kids Essays

Bed Time Stories of the Saints When children are young, it can be difficult for parents to teach them certain skills and lessons to live a good life. For example, toilet training a young person is something all parents suffer through and most of the time it is hard for them to teach their young ones how to use the bathroom. Several methods have been developed by psychologists, pediatricians, and other scholarly people on the toilet-training process. In addition to this, children’s books are published that are strictly directed at teaching children about their own bodily functions, and using the restroom. The language used, the illustrations, and the delivery of the language, is directed at children. Even children’s bibles are made because children cannot comprehend, or hold the attention to the King James version on the Bible, and so the stories of the bible and its teachings are rewritten in a language children can understand, as well as presented in a manner that will hold a child’s att ention. This same approach is used for Catholic stories of their saints in order to teach children about them and their lives that they lived, which reflects how the Church instructs its followers to live in order to go on to everlasting life with God, Jesus, and the Holy Spirit. Each children’s story evaluated, although directed to teach children, or to help the parents teach the child, also contains a certain sub-text, and by comparing the same children’s stories to those written for adults and the general public about saints, and by examining the authors intent, as well as the intent of the Catholic church, the importance of these different story styles and their purpose will be determined. The first story analyzed will be th... ...ersion of a saint’s story is read, the reader will learn something different and take something different from each one. Works Cited De Cantimpre, Thomas. The Life of Christina the Astonishing. Trans. King, Margot H., David Wilijer. 2nd ed. Toranto, Canada: Peregrina Publishing Company, 1999. De Pizan, Christine. "Saint Catherine." The Book of the City of Ladies. New York: Persea Books, 1982. 217. De Voragine, Jacobus. "Saint Cecilia, Saint Catherine." The Golden Legend. Princeton, New Jersey: Princeton University Press, 1993. 318. Lee, Frank C. SS R. Bedtime Stories of the Saints. Vol. 2. Liguori, Missouri: Liguori Publications, 1980. Lee, Frank C. SS R. Bedtime Stories of the Saints. Vol. 1. Liguori, Missouri: Liguori Publications, 1980. Potter, Giselle. Lucy's Eyes and Margaret's Dragon. San Francisco: Chronicle Books, 1997.

Is Mary Shelleys Frankenstein typical of the horror genre? Essay

Is Mary Shelley's Frankenstein typical of the horror genre? To answer the question above, I firstly need to be clear about the term 'genre.' Genre is a particular style in art or literature, some examples of genres are: romantic, Romance, science-fiction and Gothic. Each genre has its own personal features, for example the romance genre deals with love, it normally has exotic settings and it deals with emotional issues. I am going to try and categorise the book and then try to decide whether or not it is just a horror story, or if it is more than that. If it is just a horror story then it will focus on death, darkness, fear and terror. It will also try to shock the reader and it will use suspense heavily. With this in mind, Frankenstein is definitely a horror story, for example Victor Frankenstein said, on the day when the creature was born, "a dreary night in November." This shows that the day is dark, which is typical of a day in a horror story. "Infuse a spark... into this lifeless thing" this is when he is talking about the creature, and there is definitely and emphasis on death and darkness. Victor says he also has "astounding horror" this shows that he is feeling especially horrified with the monster. From the beginning of the book, the horror genre is the primary genre in the novel, even before Victor Frankenstein's story has even begun there is evidence of horror. Just before he starts to tell his story, he tells Robert Walton that his story has "unparalleled misfortunes" and that he has "memories of evil" this is meant to strike fear into the reader and into Robert Walton, it shows that Victor Frankenstein is deeply horrified with what has happened to him. There is also evil in this story a... ...ypical through out all of the book. I believe that Frankenstein is definitely a horror story and that it is also a Gothic story, because it has many features that are typical of these genres. I do not believe that they are the main genres though, as the Romantic genre is a lot more dominant in this novel. I believe that this is mainly because of the time period that it was set in, as it was written in 1818, and this was when people were starting to discard the horror genre, and they were starting to believe in nature. Also the horror genre is only present in a few of the chapters and the Romantic genre is present in most. There are many other genres present, but none of them are feature as much as the Romantic genre. I do believe that Frankenstein is typical of the horror genre, but only in some of the novel, and it is more typical of the Romantic genre.

Critical Evaluation

The purpose in writing my critical evaluation essay is to do any analysis of a writer's point of view. In addition, it is to do an evaluation of the author's message. That is, what is the thesis or key idea the author was trying to get across. I will explore the writer's arguments that were offered to prove the focal idea and a summary of the author's solutions for action. It is my hope, with the critical evaluation, that l, along with the readers of my essay, will discover whether the author provided appropriate evidential support and the effectiveness of it.I also pop to provide some new insight and understanding to a topic that is so important to our history. This assignment allowed me to research a topic that is so important to our history. I was greatly intrigued that a group of atomic scientists who were responsible for creating such a meaner of destruction were pleading to halt the use of the atomic bomb against Japan. Not only through the course of my critical evaluation did I learn more about the events that led up to the bombing of Japan, I developed an understanding of the struggles between science, politics, and moral obligation and consequences.Moreover, to believe that if this plea could have been written in a different way, it could have affected the course of history. The difficulties I encountered during this writing assignment were ensuring I evaluated it in a logical manner, free from emotion due to the impact it had on our history. I attempted throughout the process, to perform research of the topic and make myself more knowledgeable of the events that led up to the petition and what took place after. I also had to ensure that while doing a critical evaluation off topic does not mean to be negative.But rather, it meaner being objective and well- informed. I enjoyed this assignment because it allowed me to revisit a topic in history that had such a huge impact. Although, I was aware of the author and who he was, I was not aware of the importa nce of this petition and how it could have changed the course of history. This assignment allowed me to evaluate an important part of history, pose and challenge questions about the topic, and see the strengths and weaknesses of a particular point of view.The article I chose is Leo Galliard's â€Å"Petition to the President†. As I stated previously, I chose this essay because of its huge impact on history, the struggle teen moral obligation and politics, and how the history course of events could have been altered had this article been written differently. Furthermore, with this article, it was easy for me to see the use of ethos versus pathos and the implications of the author's writing style.Michael Martinez Professor Shields ENGLE 102 Effectiveness in Writing 24 May 2013 In 1945, when it became public that the Truman administration planned on using atomic bombs against Japan, a group of scientists, many who had worked on the project, decided to protest. Led by Leo Sailor, a petition was written to the president or his fellow scientists to consider. It asked the President â€Å"to rule that the United States shall not, in the present phase of the war, resort to the use of atomic bombs† (Sailor, par. 1).Galliard's arguments expressed in the petition lacked the strength and persuasion needed to convince the President that the use of the atomic bomb against Japan was unjustifiable due to the lack of facts presented, the numerous fallacies found within the writing, and the failure to express the weight that their arguments held in the decision. In Leo Galliard's petition to the President, the author repeatedly utilizes the appeal f pathos, expressing the ideas in a way that invokes emotion and feelings from the audience, particularly the president. Galliard's states: Atomic power will provide the nations with new meaner of destruction.The atomic bombs at our disposal represent only the first step in this direction and there is almost no limit to th e destructive power which will become available in the course of this development. Thus a nation which sets the precedent of using these newly liberated forces of nature for purposes of destruction may have to bear the responsibility of peeing the door to an era of devastation on an unimaginable scale (Sailor, par. 5). Here, Sailor was trying to describe to the President that the results of using the atomic bomb would not only affect Japan, but ultimately the United States.Not only would the United States have to bear responsibility of having unleashed this atomic power, she would feel the effects of it when it would be used, inevitably, against other countries in the future. The author's overuse of pathos made his appeal less convincing and failed to convince President Truman that the use of atomic bombs against Japan was unwarranted. If Sailor had appealed to the President with the use of ethos, it would have made a more successful petition and proven his credibility as an expert. The lack of facts presented and the failure to express the weight that their arguments held weakened their petition. For example, as creators of the atomic bomb, they were aware of the specific catastrophic effects, including radiation poisoning. This is information that only the scientists knew and excluding it created a huge defect in their petition. A petition based on the scientist's logic and expertise would have proven far more effective. Excluding critical information that only the scientists knew should have been used as the main incentive to persuade the President.Not addressing the fact that it was them who created the atomic bomb and they knew of its enormous destruction capabilities, was a key point that should have been addressed. The petitioner's recurring use of pathos and pleas of emotion and moral obligation diverted the logical truths of their arguments. A factual representation of the have ultimately changed the course of history. Leo Sailor and his fellow co-sign ers did not prevent the bombings of Hiroshima ND Nagasaki, thus, proving that the arguments of the scientists failed to hold the strength needed to prevent the world's first nuclear catastrophe.The choice of words and main points could have been more powerful. A more dramatic impact might have changed the way history played out. If the scientists would have gone about the bombings in complete opposition rather than attempting to dictate policy, they might have been successful. Works Cited Sailor, Leo and Cosigners. â€Å"A Petition to the President of the United States. † Authenticator. Com. 2011. Web. 11 May 2012.